Da-Chief
02-16-2007, 23:16
16 February 2007
Things can change so fast if your not looking...
Well things have changed with the Corps side since I did my last post, thought I would get em out in the open here..So here we go...
-----Original Message-----
From: Campa, Joe R MCPON MCPON, (OPNAV) [mailto:joe.campa@navy.mil (mailto:joe.campa@navy.mil)]
Sent: Sunday, February 11, 2007 6:13 PM
Subject: Advancement Exams in CENTCOM AOR
My fellow Chiefs,
In October, CNO approved an initiative that allowed Sailors serving in
Iraq, Afghanistan and the Horn of Africa opportunities to take advancement
exams prior to or after their return from those assignments. That decision
was made to recognize and support Sailors for their service in hazardous
combat zones. Administration of advancement exams inside these countries was
halted.
Terminating exams in theater was meant to ease a significant burden from
these courageous Sailors, and it did. But there were consequences. The
Sailors most affected by this policy were First Class Petty Officers
taking the advancement exam to become CPO-board eligible. One result would
have been that a Chief selected through a specially-convened selection board
would have been denied up to 18 months time-in-rate before becoming
eligible for Senior Chief. I don't have to tell you the effects this could have
on leadership and future advancement.
Over the past several months we have been studying the impact of these
initiatives and received tremendous feedback from the Fleet. Input from
officers and Chiefs in the CENTCOM AOR overwhelmingly indicated their
Sailors wanted to compete with their peers. On a recent CENTCOM trip, I
received similar feedback from Sailors wondering why an IA assignment
equaled a possible advancement delay for those who couldn't test prior
to deployment.
CNO's original initiative was well meaning and created with the best
interests of our Sailors in mind. His decision to revise the policy is
reflective of our Leadership's commitment to doing the what's right for
our Sailors, and I applaud this decision.
The following action has been approved and will go into effect
immediately.
All time-in-rate eligible First Class Petty Officers currently serving
in Iraq, Afghanistan and the Horn of Africa will be automatically validated
as board-eligible without having to take the exam. This will affect
approximately 650 Sailors. This exemption is being provided as relief
from the policy established in October while a new one is being formulated to
take care of all our in-theater Sailors with respect to exams. A
NAVADMIN will follow shortly that details this revision, and Task Force I.A. is
working on recommendations that address the overall issue of Sailors
taking advancement exams in theater.
I anticipate this revision of policy will generate some discussion on
the part of our hard-working Sailors on ships and around the world who can
rightfully claim that their jobs present study challenges, as well. I
understand those challenges, but point out the reason for this one-time
exemption is to ensure those Sailors potentially disadvantaged by the
original policy are given renewed opportunity to compete for
advancement.
I absolutely need your help in communicating this policy and its
effects. I rely on you to explain the reasoning behind it to your Sailors,
particularly those who don't initially understand why our Sailors on the ground are
being given exam-exempt status. While nothing is more honorable than service
to our country, Sailors need to know their leadership is doing everything
they can to do what is best for them, their careers and for their families.
This revision to policy is a significant reflection of our leadership's
ability to reverse course when necessary, and our dedication to all our
Sailors.
Thanks again for your leadership and commitment to the Guiding
Principles that keep our community strong, united and full of purpose.
v/r Joe
That my friend is from a "TRUE" MCPON! Thanks Master Chief CAMPA! BZ!
Ok what else have we got here.... (Looking in the bag...)
Oh Yeah.. you wanna be a CASAVAC (Strictly Volunteer.) HM? Read below..
We are now taking people right out of Corps School who want to Volunteer for the CASAVAC Mission. You have to volunteer for this "TIGHT" community. If interested see me in Student Personnel or HMC Pace.
Well thats about it for now.. Also remember this is "Black History Month" and in support of that, I close with this bit of history provided by LT. Johnson, NHCS.
Today in Diversity, Celebrating African American History Month.
Did you know?
Blacks in the Military
The fight for recognition of African-American soldiers
by Elissa Haney
In World War II, black soldiers were sent to N. Africa to join the Allied Forces.
Although African Americans have participated in every major U.S. war (http://www.factmonster.com/spot/memorialday1.html), the battle for integration (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE025753.html) and for recognition of the accomplishments of black soldiers has been a slow process. It wasn't until after World War II (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/A0001288) that the U.S. armed forces became integrated, under a 1948 executive order by President Harry S. Truman (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/A0760617.html).
Credit to blacks in the military has gradually been awarded where due and where long overdue. We have pulled out just a few historical black regiments that exemplify the struggles and the contributions by African Americans in the armed forces before integration.
The 54th Massachusetts Infantry
One of the first black units to join the Union forces in the Civil War (http://www.factmonster.com/id/A0001248), the Fifty-Fourth had the eyes of the nation upon it. The company, which was largely composed of freed black slaves from various northern states, earned its fame in the July 18, 1863, battle at Battery Wagner. It was assigned the challenge of leading the assault on this Confederate (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE012256.html) fort, which was located on an island near Charleston, S.C. (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE010285.html)
Although the unsuccessful attack resulted in heavy casualties, the courageous act of one member of Company C brought the Fifty-Fourth widespread attention. During the battle, the unit managed to briefly capture a small section of the battery. The unit's leader, Col. Robert Gould Shaw (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE047346.html), however, was fatally wounded in the process. Seeing that the color sergeant was down, Sgt. William H. Carney (http://www.factmonster.com/askeds/2-11-00askeds.html) risked his life to take the flag and lead the troops to the parapet, upon which he planted the colors. When the soldiers were given the order to retreat, Carney again took the flag while facing heavy fire, before falling back. He was severely wounded by two bullets during the battle but survived to become the first African American to be presented a Congressional Medal of Honor (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/A0004631), on May 23, 1900.
Buffalo Soldiers
After the Civil War, Congress authorized the creation of six segregated black regiments to serve in the peace-time army, under white officers. The Ninth and Tenth Cavalries (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE009702.html) and the 38th through 41st Infantries (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE025607.html)—all composed of African-American soldiers—were thus formed.
The new cavalries were mainly stationed in the Southwest and the Great Plains (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE021738.html), where it was their responsibility to build forts and maintain order in a frontier (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE019679.html) overrun by outlaws and occupied by Native Americans battling land-grabbing intruders. The black troops earned the nickname "Buffalo Soldiers"—as much for their ability in battle as for their dark skin—from the Cheyenne (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE010570.html) Indians.
The men of the Ninth and Tenth Cavalries further proved their abilities in the Spanish-American War (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE048938.html) and in guarding the Mexican border. Members of both regiments fought in Cuba (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/A0107443), participating in the battle at San Juan Hill (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE045926.html). The Tenth also served under General John J. Pershing (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE040344.html) in the expedition against Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE054257.html). In 1941, the two regiments merged to form the Fourth Cavalry Brigade, which was led by the army's first African-American general, Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE014089.html), and would exist for only three years before all horse cavalry regiments were disbanded.
The Tuskegee Airmen
By the beginning of World War II, African Americans were putting increased pressure on the government to make conditions more equal for blacks in the armed forces. Still reluctant to integrate the military, the government took a step forward in 1941 by creating the first all-black military aviation program, at the Tuskegee Institute (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE053021.html) in Alabama (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/A0108176). The action received a great deal of criticism from black Americans who were outraged by their continued segregation.
In May 1943, the first group of Tuskegee-trained pilots was sent to North Africa to join the Allied forces. They were headed by Capt. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE014090.html), who would later become the first African-American Air Force general. The accomplishments made by the 99th Fighter Squadron, especially in it's collaboration with the all-white 79th Fighter Group in October 1943, helped pave the way for integration in the Air Force (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE000948.html).
Important Cities in Black History
Atlanta to Washington, DC: landmarks in African-American history
by David Johnson
In 1910, fifty years after the Civil War (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0812362.html), 89% of all blacks still lived in the South, and 80% of these in rural areas.
But in the years that followed, one of the largest mass movements in American history got underway. Beginning in 1913, a series of calamities devastated the cotton (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/sci/A0813753.html) crop. First, world cotton prices plummeted, then boll weevils infested huge areas, and finally in 1915, severe floods inundated the Mississippi Valley.
Farmers Lost Everything
Already suffering under racially discriminatory Jim Crow laws (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0826301.html), many black sharecroppers and tenant farmers fell deeply into debt or lost everything. At the same time, World War I (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0852742.html) had slowed foreign immigration to the cities of the North while increasing demand for industrial goods. The result was a severe labor shortage in many northern and western cities.
Mass Migration North
In what became known as the Great Migration, blacks poured off the farms in search of urban jobs. Between 1915 and 1920 as many as one million African Americans moved to northern cities. Nearly another million joined them in the decade that followed. In addition, tens of thousands of blacks went west, especially to California, while several hundred thousand moved to southern cities.
Although the Great Migration slowed during the Depression, nearly one-fourth of all blacks lived in the North or West by 1940. The trend continued during and after World War II (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0852743.html). By 1960, 40% of all blacks lived outside the South, while 75% of all blacks lived in cities. By transforming their rural southern backgrounds to fit their new urban homes, African Americans created a new black culture.
Here are some of the important places in African American political, intellectual, and artistic life.
ATLANTA
Blacks did not become a major presence in Atlanta until after the Civil War (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0812362.html). In the late 1800s, nearly half of Atlanta's residents were black. However, the city remained racially polarized. In 1906 white mobs attacked black neighbors, claiming that black men were threatening white women. In 1915 Atlanta became the headquarters of the newly revived Ku Klux Klan. In the 1960s Atlanta minister Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (http://www.factmonster.com/spot/mlkjrday1.html), emerged as leader of the civil rights movement, bringing increased prominence to the city. The Martin Luther King, Jr., National Historic Site, which includes the King Center for Social Justice, his birthplace, and the Ebenezer Baptist Church, has helped make Atlanta a major tourist attraction for those interested in black history.
BIRMINGHAM
In 1963, Birmingham became a tragic chapter in the civil rights movement (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/society/A0857363.html) when four young black girls attending Sunday school were killed when a bomb exploded at the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church, a popular location for civil rights meetings. Riots erupted. It was here that Martin Luther King was arrested and jailed during anti-segregation protests, and where he wrote his famous Letter From Birmingham City Jail, arguing that individuals have the moral duty to disobey unjust laws. Some of the most powerful and influential photographs documenting the civil rights movement were taken during a demonstration in Kelly Ingram Park—the brutal images of Bull Connor's police dogs attacking black marchers helped wake up the world to southern racism. Birmingham's first black mayor, Richard Arrington, elected in 1979, helped create a historic district devoted to the civil rights movement. The Birmingham Civil Rights Institute, a museum and research center, opened in 1992.
BOSTON
Although it was an important slave port in the 1600s, Boston had an active abolitionist (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0802190.html) movement by 1700. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts abolished slavery in 1783, and by the 1830s Boston had become the center of American abolitionist sentiment. The 54th Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, a black unit from Boston, fought in the Civil War (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0812362.html). While the Great Migration did not have much affect on Boston, the city has received substantial immigration from the Caribbean in recent decades.
Black History in Boston: A Virtual Field Trip (http://www.teachervision.com/lesson-plans/lesson-4557.html)
New Bedford, MA Virtual Field Trip: Underground Railroad Sites (http://www.teachervision.com/lesson-plans/lesson-4969.html)
CHICAGO
With its sizzling jazz (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/ent/A0826064.html) and blues, substantial middle class, and political clout, Chicago's black community rivaled Harlem's in the 1920s and 30s. Drawn by the city's meatpacking houses, railway companies, and steel mills, the black population in Chicago skyrocketed from 44,000 in 1910 to 235,000 in 1930. In 1928 the first black congressman since Reconstruction (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0841309.html), Republican Oscar De Priest, was elected. In the 1930s the Democratic party machine took control, diminishing black political strength. The city remained segregated. In 1966 Martin Luther King, Jr (http://www.factmonster.com/spot/mlkjrday1.html)., began the Chicago Freedom Movement to push for integrated housing, while Jesse Jackson launched Operation Breadbasket to increase black employment. Serious riots rocked Chicago in 1966 and 1968, following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
DETROIT
The Great Migration increased Detroit's black population from under 6,000 in 1910 to 120,000 in 1930. Working in the auto and other industries, a black middle class soon developed, creating an important cultural community. For instance, W.D. Fard founded the Nation of Islam (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/society/A0807794.html) in Detroit in 1930. In the 1960s, the black-owned Motown Record Corporation propelled many leading black performers, including Diana Ross and the Jackson Five, to stardom. Serious race riots rocked the city in 1943 and 1967, sending thousands of whites into the suburbs. In 1973 Coleman Young was elected the first black mayor. Today the city is more than 75% black
.
HARLEM, NEW YORK
The political and cultural center of black American life in the 20th century has been the New York City neighborhood of Harlem, located north of Central Park in Manhattan. After a period of inflationary speculation, Harlem real estate prices collapsed in 1904. The completion of the Lenox Ave. (Sixth Ave.) subway made commuting to lower Manhattan easier. Blacks, including many from the South and the West Indies (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/world/A0851931.html), began moving in.
Led by intellectuals such as W.E.B. Du Bois (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/people/A0816204.html) and Marcus Garvey (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/people/A0820268.html), black culture soon flourished, culminating in the Harlem Renaissance (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/ent/A0822748.html) of the 1920s and 1930s. Although Harlem's political clout continued to grow, by 1960 the black middle class had largely abandoned it, leaving behind a poor community struggling with various social problems. The area is currently undergoing a revival.
MEMPHIS
Stretching along the Mississippi River, Beale St. was a center of the blues in its heyday in the first half of the 20th century. During the Jim Crow laws, blacks flocked Beale St., which was a thriving oasis of black businesses. After a prolonged slump, Beale St. is now being revived. Memphis is home of the excellent Stax Museum of American Soul Music (http://www.soulsvilleusa.com/). The National Civil Rights Museum at the Lorraine Motel, where Martin Luther King, Jr. (http://www.factmonster.com/spot/mlkjrday1.html), was assassinated, is a popular tourist attraction.
MONTGOMERY
The capitol of Alabama represents a milestone in the civil rights movement. In 1955 a black seamstress, Rosa Parks (http://www.factmonster.com/ipa/A0906821.html), was arrested for refusing to relinquish her seat to a white man. The subsequent boycott of the city's segregated bus system by Montgomery's 17,000 black residents, led by Martin Luther King (http://www.factmonster.com/spot/mlkjrday1.html), received nationwide publicity and helped launch the civil rights movement. The 1965 Selma-to-Montgomery march (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/society/A0857363.html) helped create the momentum that passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
NEW ORLEANS
A major port, New Orleans has been affected by diverse cultural influences. By the Civil War (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0812362.html), a class of light-skinned blacks called Creoles, descended from French and Spanish settlers and African slaves, had created a vibrant middle-class community. Many Creoles were well educated and lived apart from the black slaves. The slaves, on the other hand, congregated in Congo Square and kept alive vestiges of African culture by performing traditional songs and dances. The imposition of Jim Crow laws (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0826301.html) in the latter part of the 19th century classified Creoles as blacks and barred them from white institutions. Creoles were forced to mix with blacks, many of whom had come from the Mississippi Delta, and the West Indies (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/world/A0851931.html), in particular Haiti (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/world/A0822378.html). Jazz (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/ent/A0826064.html) and blues arose from the fusion of these cultures, earning New Orleans the reputation as one of the most musically creative cities in the U.S.
In 2005, Hurricane Katrina (http://www.factmonster.com/spot/hurricanekatrina.html) ravaged New Orleans. When its levees were breached, about 80% of the city was submerged by the flooding. As most of the city's citizens fled the city, those without cars or the financial means to relocate were left behind, trapped in the city without power, food, or drinking water. The 100,000 who remained in the drowning city were largely poor and predominantly black, exposing the racial dimension of New Orleans’s persistent poverty: 28% of New Orleanians are poor (twice the national average) and 84% of those are black. Although billions of dollars have been allocated to the city's reconstruction, rebuilding efforts have been chaotic and slow, and there is currently no master plan for rebuilding large-scale infrastructure. Many residents will never have the opportunity to return to their beloved city.
NICODEMUS, KANSAS
As Reconstruction (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0841309.html) came to an end in the 1870s, many Southern blacks feared they would lose their civil liberties. Known as "Exodusters," thousands fled to a number of newly created black towns, such as Nicodemus. Founded in 1877, Nicodemus was promoted as "the Promised Land." Within two years the community had 700 residents. But bad weather and subsequent crop failures, followed by the Union Pacific Railroad's decision to bypass the town, spelled its doom. Nicodemus was soon deserted.
While most black towns met a similar fate, a number are still in existence. The towns of Boley, Langston City, Porter, and Taft, in Oklahoma; Booker and Kendleton, in Texas; and Fairmount Heights and Glenarden, in Maryland, outside Washington, DC, all began as havens for blacks. While some criticized the establishment of black towns, the communities offered African Americans opportunities that were often rare in the 19th century.
WASHINGTON, DC
A major stop for runaway Southern slaves, Washington, DC, attracted large numbers of blacks after the Civil War (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0812362.html). By 1960 the city had a majority black population. The presence of black political organizations and the large marches in the 1960s made Washington a major center of the civil rights movement. Today it is one of the largest and most prominent black-dominated communities in the United States.
Things can change so fast if your not looking...
Well things have changed with the Corps side since I did my last post, thought I would get em out in the open here..So here we go...
-----Original Message-----
From: Campa, Joe R MCPON MCPON, (OPNAV) [mailto:joe.campa@navy.mil (mailto:joe.campa@navy.mil)]
Sent: Sunday, February 11, 2007 6:13 PM
Subject: Advancement Exams in CENTCOM AOR
My fellow Chiefs,
In October, CNO approved an initiative that allowed Sailors serving in
Iraq, Afghanistan and the Horn of Africa opportunities to take advancement
exams prior to or after their return from those assignments. That decision
was made to recognize and support Sailors for their service in hazardous
combat zones. Administration of advancement exams inside these countries was
halted.
Terminating exams in theater was meant to ease a significant burden from
these courageous Sailors, and it did. But there were consequences. The
Sailors most affected by this policy were First Class Petty Officers
taking the advancement exam to become CPO-board eligible. One result would
have been that a Chief selected through a specially-convened selection board
would have been denied up to 18 months time-in-rate before becoming
eligible for Senior Chief. I don't have to tell you the effects this could have
on leadership and future advancement.
Over the past several months we have been studying the impact of these
initiatives and received tremendous feedback from the Fleet. Input from
officers and Chiefs in the CENTCOM AOR overwhelmingly indicated their
Sailors wanted to compete with their peers. On a recent CENTCOM trip, I
received similar feedback from Sailors wondering why an IA assignment
equaled a possible advancement delay for those who couldn't test prior
to deployment.
CNO's original initiative was well meaning and created with the best
interests of our Sailors in mind. His decision to revise the policy is
reflective of our Leadership's commitment to doing the what's right for
our Sailors, and I applaud this decision.
The following action has been approved and will go into effect
immediately.
All time-in-rate eligible First Class Petty Officers currently serving
in Iraq, Afghanistan and the Horn of Africa will be automatically validated
as board-eligible without having to take the exam. This will affect
approximately 650 Sailors. This exemption is being provided as relief
from the policy established in October while a new one is being formulated to
take care of all our in-theater Sailors with respect to exams. A
NAVADMIN will follow shortly that details this revision, and Task Force I.A. is
working on recommendations that address the overall issue of Sailors
taking advancement exams in theater.
I anticipate this revision of policy will generate some discussion on
the part of our hard-working Sailors on ships and around the world who can
rightfully claim that their jobs present study challenges, as well. I
understand those challenges, but point out the reason for this one-time
exemption is to ensure those Sailors potentially disadvantaged by the
original policy are given renewed opportunity to compete for
advancement.
I absolutely need your help in communicating this policy and its
effects. I rely on you to explain the reasoning behind it to your Sailors,
particularly those who don't initially understand why our Sailors on the ground are
being given exam-exempt status. While nothing is more honorable than service
to our country, Sailors need to know their leadership is doing everything
they can to do what is best for them, their careers and for their families.
This revision to policy is a significant reflection of our leadership's
ability to reverse course when necessary, and our dedication to all our
Sailors.
Thanks again for your leadership and commitment to the Guiding
Principles that keep our community strong, united and full of purpose.
v/r Joe
That my friend is from a "TRUE" MCPON! Thanks Master Chief CAMPA! BZ!
Ok what else have we got here.... (Looking in the bag...)
Oh Yeah.. you wanna be a CASAVAC (Strictly Volunteer.) HM? Read below..
We are now taking people right out of Corps School who want to Volunteer for the CASAVAC Mission. You have to volunteer for this "TIGHT" community. If interested see me in Student Personnel or HMC Pace.
Well thats about it for now.. Also remember this is "Black History Month" and in support of that, I close with this bit of history provided by LT. Johnson, NHCS.
Today in Diversity, Celebrating African American History Month.
Did you know?
Blacks in the Military
The fight for recognition of African-American soldiers
by Elissa Haney
In World War II, black soldiers were sent to N. Africa to join the Allied Forces.
Although African Americans have participated in every major U.S. war (http://www.factmonster.com/spot/memorialday1.html), the battle for integration (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE025753.html) and for recognition of the accomplishments of black soldiers has been a slow process. It wasn't until after World War II (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/A0001288) that the U.S. armed forces became integrated, under a 1948 executive order by President Harry S. Truman (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/A0760617.html).
Credit to blacks in the military has gradually been awarded where due and where long overdue. We have pulled out just a few historical black regiments that exemplify the struggles and the contributions by African Americans in the armed forces before integration.
The 54th Massachusetts Infantry
One of the first black units to join the Union forces in the Civil War (http://www.factmonster.com/id/A0001248), the Fifty-Fourth had the eyes of the nation upon it. The company, which was largely composed of freed black slaves from various northern states, earned its fame in the July 18, 1863, battle at Battery Wagner. It was assigned the challenge of leading the assault on this Confederate (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE012256.html) fort, which was located on an island near Charleston, S.C. (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE010285.html)
Although the unsuccessful attack resulted in heavy casualties, the courageous act of one member of Company C brought the Fifty-Fourth widespread attention. During the battle, the unit managed to briefly capture a small section of the battery. The unit's leader, Col. Robert Gould Shaw (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE047346.html), however, was fatally wounded in the process. Seeing that the color sergeant was down, Sgt. William H. Carney (http://www.factmonster.com/askeds/2-11-00askeds.html) risked his life to take the flag and lead the troops to the parapet, upon which he planted the colors. When the soldiers were given the order to retreat, Carney again took the flag while facing heavy fire, before falling back. He was severely wounded by two bullets during the battle but survived to become the first African American to be presented a Congressional Medal of Honor (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/A0004631), on May 23, 1900.
Buffalo Soldiers
After the Civil War, Congress authorized the creation of six segregated black regiments to serve in the peace-time army, under white officers. The Ninth and Tenth Cavalries (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE009702.html) and the 38th through 41st Infantries (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE025607.html)—all composed of African-American soldiers—were thus formed.
The new cavalries were mainly stationed in the Southwest and the Great Plains (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE021738.html), where it was their responsibility to build forts and maintain order in a frontier (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE019679.html) overrun by outlaws and occupied by Native Americans battling land-grabbing intruders. The black troops earned the nickname "Buffalo Soldiers"—as much for their ability in battle as for their dark skin—from the Cheyenne (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE010570.html) Indians.
The men of the Ninth and Tenth Cavalries further proved their abilities in the Spanish-American War (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE048938.html) and in guarding the Mexican border. Members of both regiments fought in Cuba (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/A0107443), participating in the battle at San Juan Hill (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE045926.html). The Tenth also served under General John J. Pershing (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE040344.html) in the expedition against Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE054257.html). In 1941, the two regiments merged to form the Fourth Cavalry Brigade, which was led by the army's first African-American general, Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE014089.html), and would exist for only three years before all horse cavalry regiments were disbanded.
The Tuskegee Airmen
By the beginning of World War II, African Americans were putting increased pressure on the government to make conditions more equal for blacks in the armed forces. Still reluctant to integrate the military, the government took a step forward in 1941 by creating the first all-black military aviation program, at the Tuskegee Institute (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE053021.html) in Alabama (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/A0108176). The action received a great deal of criticism from black Americans who were outraged by their continued segregation.
In May 1943, the first group of Tuskegee-trained pilots was sent to North Africa to join the Allied forces. They were headed by Capt. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. (http://www.factmonster.com/id/CE014090.html), who would later become the first African-American Air Force general. The accomplishments made by the 99th Fighter Squadron, especially in it's collaboration with the all-white 79th Fighter Group in October 1943, helped pave the way for integration in the Air Force (http://www.factmonster.com/cgi-bin/id/CE000948.html).
Important Cities in Black History
Atlanta to Washington, DC: landmarks in African-American history
by David Johnson
In 1910, fifty years after the Civil War (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0812362.html), 89% of all blacks still lived in the South, and 80% of these in rural areas.
But in the years that followed, one of the largest mass movements in American history got underway. Beginning in 1913, a series of calamities devastated the cotton (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/sci/A0813753.html) crop. First, world cotton prices plummeted, then boll weevils infested huge areas, and finally in 1915, severe floods inundated the Mississippi Valley.
Farmers Lost Everything
Already suffering under racially discriminatory Jim Crow laws (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0826301.html), many black sharecroppers and tenant farmers fell deeply into debt or lost everything. At the same time, World War I (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0852742.html) had slowed foreign immigration to the cities of the North while increasing demand for industrial goods. The result was a severe labor shortage in many northern and western cities.
Mass Migration North
In what became known as the Great Migration, blacks poured off the farms in search of urban jobs. Between 1915 and 1920 as many as one million African Americans moved to northern cities. Nearly another million joined them in the decade that followed. In addition, tens of thousands of blacks went west, especially to California, while several hundred thousand moved to southern cities.
Although the Great Migration slowed during the Depression, nearly one-fourth of all blacks lived in the North or West by 1940. The trend continued during and after World War II (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0852743.html). By 1960, 40% of all blacks lived outside the South, while 75% of all blacks lived in cities. By transforming their rural southern backgrounds to fit their new urban homes, African Americans created a new black culture.
Here are some of the important places in African American political, intellectual, and artistic life.
ATLANTA
Blacks did not become a major presence in Atlanta until after the Civil War (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0812362.html). In the late 1800s, nearly half of Atlanta's residents were black. However, the city remained racially polarized. In 1906 white mobs attacked black neighbors, claiming that black men were threatening white women. In 1915 Atlanta became the headquarters of the newly revived Ku Klux Klan. In the 1960s Atlanta minister Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (http://www.factmonster.com/spot/mlkjrday1.html), emerged as leader of the civil rights movement, bringing increased prominence to the city. The Martin Luther King, Jr., National Historic Site, which includes the King Center for Social Justice, his birthplace, and the Ebenezer Baptist Church, has helped make Atlanta a major tourist attraction for those interested in black history.
BIRMINGHAM
In 1963, Birmingham became a tragic chapter in the civil rights movement (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/society/A0857363.html) when four young black girls attending Sunday school were killed when a bomb exploded at the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church, a popular location for civil rights meetings. Riots erupted. It was here that Martin Luther King was arrested and jailed during anti-segregation protests, and where he wrote his famous Letter From Birmingham City Jail, arguing that individuals have the moral duty to disobey unjust laws. Some of the most powerful and influential photographs documenting the civil rights movement were taken during a demonstration in Kelly Ingram Park—the brutal images of Bull Connor's police dogs attacking black marchers helped wake up the world to southern racism. Birmingham's first black mayor, Richard Arrington, elected in 1979, helped create a historic district devoted to the civil rights movement. The Birmingham Civil Rights Institute, a museum and research center, opened in 1992.
BOSTON
Although it was an important slave port in the 1600s, Boston had an active abolitionist (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0802190.html) movement by 1700. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts abolished slavery in 1783, and by the 1830s Boston had become the center of American abolitionist sentiment. The 54th Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, a black unit from Boston, fought in the Civil War (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0812362.html). While the Great Migration did not have much affect on Boston, the city has received substantial immigration from the Caribbean in recent decades.
Black History in Boston: A Virtual Field Trip (http://www.teachervision.com/lesson-plans/lesson-4557.html)
New Bedford, MA Virtual Field Trip: Underground Railroad Sites (http://www.teachervision.com/lesson-plans/lesson-4969.html)
CHICAGO
With its sizzling jazz (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/ent/A0826064.html) and blues, substantial middle class, and political clout, Chicago's black community rivaled Harlem's in the 1920s and 30s. Drawn by the city's meatpacking houses, railway companies, and steel mills, the black population in Chicago skyrocketed from 44,000 in 1910 to 235,000 in 1930. In 1928 the first black congressman since Reconstruction (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0841309.html), Republican Oscar De Priest, was elected. In the 1930s the Democratic party machine took control, diminishing black political strength. The city remained segregated. In 1966 Martin Luther King, Jr (http://www.factmonster.com/spot/mlkjrday1.html)., began the Chicago Freedom Movement to push for integrated housing, while Jesse Jackson launched Operation Breadbasket to increase black employment. Serious riots rocked Chicago in 1966 and 1968, following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
DETROIT
The Great Migration increased Detroit's black population from under 6,000 in 1910 to 120,000 in 1930. Working in the auto and other industries, a black middle class soon developed, creating an important cultural community. For instance, W.D. Fard founded the Nation of Islam (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/society/A0807794.html) in Detroit in 1930. In the 1960s, the black-owned Motown Record Corporation propelled many leading black performers, including Diana Ross and the Jackson Five, to stardom. Serious race riots rocked the city in 1943 and 1967, sending thousands of whites into the suburbs. In 1973 Coleman Young was elected the first black mayor. Today the city is more than 75% black
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HARLEM, NEW YORK
The political and cultural center of black American life in the 20th century has been the New York City neighborhood of Harlem, located north of Central Park in Manhattan. After a period of inflationary speculation, Harlem real estate prices collapsed in 1904. The completion of the Lenox Ave. (Sixth Ave.) subway made commuting to lower Manhattan easier. Blacks, including many from the South and the West Indies (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/world/A0851931.html), began moving in.
Led by intellectuals such as W.E.B. Du Bois (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/people/A0816204.html) and Marcus Garvey (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/people/A0820268.html), black culture soon flourished, culminating in the Harlem Renaissance (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/ent/A0822748.html) of the 1920s and 1930s. Although Harlem's political clout continued to grow, by 1960 the black middle class had largely abandoned it, leaving behind a poor community struggling with various social problems. The area is currently undergoing a revival.
MEMPHIS
Stretching along the Mississippi River, Beale St. was a center of the blues in its heyday in the first half of the 20th century. During the Jim Crow laws, blacks flocked Beale St., which was a thriving oasis of black businesses. After a prolonged slump, Beale St. is now being revived. Memphis is home of the excellent Stax Museum of American Soul Music (http://www.soulsvilleusa.com/). The National Civil Rights Museum at the Lorraine Motel, where Martin Luther King, Jr. (http://www.factmonster.com/spot/mlkjrday1.html), was assassinated, is a popular tourist attraction.
MONTGOMERY
The capitol of Alabama represents a milestone in the civil rights movement. In 1955 a black seamstress, Rosa Parks (http://www.factmonster.com/ipa/A0906821.html), was arrested for refusing to relinquish her seat to a white man. The subsequent boycott of the city's segregated bus system by Montgomery's 17,000 black residents, led by Martin Luther King (http://www.factmonster.com/spot/mlkjrday1.html), received nationwide publicity and helped launch the civil rights movement. The 1965 Selma-to-Montgomery march (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/society/A0857363.html) helped create the momentum that passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
NEW ORLEANS
A major port, New Orleans has been affected by diverse cultural influences. By the Civil War (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0812362.html), a class of light-skinned blacks called Creoles, descended from French and Spanish settlers and African slaves, had created a vibrant middle-class community. Many Creoles were well educated and lived apart from the black slaves. The slaves, on the other hand, congregated in Congo Square and kept alive vestiges of African culture by performing traditional songs and dances. The imposition of Jim Crow laws (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0826301.html) in the latter part of the 19th century classified Creoles as blacks and barred them from white institutions. Creoles were forced to mix with blacks, many of whom had come from the Mississippi Delta, and the West Indies (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/world/A0851931.html), in particular Haiti (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/world/A0822378.html). Jazz (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/ent/A0826064.html) and blues arose from the fusion of these cultures, earning New Orleans the reputation as one of the most musically creative cities in the U.S.
In 2005, Hurricane Katrina (http://www.factmonster.com/spot/hurricanekatrina.html) ravaged New Orleans. When its levees were breached, about 80% of the city was submerged by the flooding. As most of the city's citizens fled the city, those without cars or the financial means to relocate were left behind, trapped in the city without power, food, or drinking water. The 100,000 who remained in the drowning city were largely poor and predominantly black, exposing the racial dimension of New Orleans’s persistent poverty: 28% of New Orleanians are poor (twice the national average) and 84% of those are black. Although billions of dollars have been allocated to the city's reconstruction, rebuilding efforts have been chaotic and slow, and there is currently no master plan for rebuilding large-scale infrastructure. Many residents will never have the opportunity to return to their beloved city.
NICODEMUS, KANSAS
As Reconstruction (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0841309.html) came to an end in the 1870s, many Southern blacks feared they would lose their civil liberties. Known as "Exodusters," thousands fled to a number of newly created black towns, such as Nicodemus. Founded in 1877, Nicodemus was promoted as "the Promised Land." Within two years the community had 700 residents. But bad weather and subsequent crop failures, followed by the Union Pacific Railroad's decision to bypass the town, spelled its doom. Nicodemus was soon deserted.
While most black towns met a similar fate, a number are still in existence. The towns of Boley, Langston City, Porter, and Taft, in Oklahoma; Booker and Kendleton, in Texas; and Fairmount Heights and Glenarden, in Maryland, outside Washington, DC, all began as havens for blacks. While some criticized the establishment of black towns, the communities offered African Americans opportunities that were often rare in the 19th century.
WASHINGTON, DC
A major stop for runaway Southern slaves, Washington, DC, attracted large numbers of blacks after the Civil War (http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/history/A0812362.html). By 1960 the city had a majority black population. The presence of black political organizations and the large marches in the 1960s made Washington a major center of the civil rights movement. Today it is one of the largest and most prominent black-dominated communities in the United States.